{"id":888,"date":"2022-09-20T14:41:39","date_gmt":"2022-09-20T13:41:39","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.mediadefence.org\/ereader\/?post_type=publication&p=888"},"modified":"2022-09-22T10:46:41","modified_gmt":"2022-09-22T09:46:41","slug":"the-right-to-freedom-of-expression-under-international-law","status":"publish","type":"publication","link":"https:\/\/www.mediadefence.org\/ereader\/publications\/modules-on-litigating-freedom-of-expression-and-digital-rights-in-south-and-southeast-asia\/module-1-key-principles-of-international-law-and-freedom-of-expression\/the-right-to-freedom-of-expression-under-international-law\/","title":{"rendered":"The Right to Freedom of Expression Under International Law"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

Freedom of expression under international law<\/em><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

The rights guaranteed by article 19 of the ICCPR comprise three distinct but interrelated rights: the right to hold opinions without interference (freedom of opinion); the right to seek and receive information (access to information); and the right to impart information (freedom of expression).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The UN Human Rights Committee\u2019s (UNHRCtte) General Comment No. 34<\/a> provides the Committee\u2019s authoritative views on the correct interpretation of article 19. In this comment, the Committee notes that the right to freedom of expression includes, for example, political discourse, commentary on one\u2019s own affairs and on public affairs, canvassing, discussion of human rights, journalism, cultural and artistic expression, teaching, and religious discourse.[footnote]UNHRCtte, General Comment No. 34, above n 3 at para 11.[\/footnote] It also embraces expression that may be regarded by some as deeply offensive.[footnote]Id.<\/em> at para 11.  For further discussion on this, see Nani Jansen Reventlow, \u2018The right to \u2018offend, shock or disturb\u2019, or the importance of protecting unpleasant speech\u2019 in Perspectives on harmful speech online: A collection of essays, Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society, 2016 at pp 7-9 (accessible at: http:\/\/nrs.harvard.edu\/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:33746096<\/a>).[\/footnote] The right covers communications that are both verbal and non-verbal, and all modes of communication, including audio-visual, electronic and internet-based.[footnote]General Comment No. 34, above n 3 at para 12.[\/footnote]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Under 19(3) of the ICCPR, the right to freedom of expression may legitimately be subject to certain restrictions. A three-part test is used to assess whether such a restriction is justified: (i) the restriction must be provided for in law; (ii) it must pursue a legitimate aim; and (iii) it must be necessary to protect a legitimate aim.[footnote]For a fuller discussion on how freedom of expression may be legitimately limited, see the training manual published by Media Defence on the principles of freedom of expression under international law: Richard Carver, \u2018Training manual on international and comparative media and freedom of expression law\u2019 at pp 14-16 (2018) accessible at: https:\/\/www.academia.edu\/27961726\/Training_manual_on_international_and_comparative_media_and_freedom_of_expression_law<\/a>).[\/footnote] The ICCPR provides an exhaustive list of legitimate aims, namely the rights or reputations of others or national security, public order, public health or morals. A similar test applies to the right to freedom of expression as guaranteed under other legal instruments.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In relation to the first step of this tripartite test, the requirement that a restriction be \u201cprovided by law\u201d, the UNHRCtte provides the following guidance:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

For the purposes of paragraph 3, a norm, to be characterized as a \u201claw\u201d, must be formulated with sufficient precision to enable an individual to regulate his or her conduct accordingly and it must be made accessible to the public. A law may not confer unfettered discretion for the restriction of freedom of expression on those charged with its execution.[footnote]General Comment No. 34, above n 3 at para 25.[\/footnote]<\/p>UN Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 34.<\/cite><\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n

The requirement that a restriction of freedom of expression be \u2018necessary\u2019 for a legitimate purpose implies that the restriction is proportionate. The UNHRCtte notes the following:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Restrictions must not be overbroad. The Committee observed in general comment No. 27 that \u201crestrictive measures must conform to the principle of proportionality; they must be appropriate to achieve their protective function; they must be the least intrusive instrument amongst those which might achieve their protective function; they must be proportionate to the interest to be protected\u2026The principle of proportionality has to be respected not only in the law that frames the restrictions but also by the administrative and judicial authorities in applying the law\u201d.[footnote]Id<\/em>. at para 34.[\/footnote]<\/p>UN Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 34.<\/cite><\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n

Freedom of expression online<\/em><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Article 19(2) of the ICCPR stipulates that the right to freedom of expression applies regardless of frontiers and through any media of one\u2019s choice.  General Comment No. 34 further confirms that article 19(2) protects digital modes of communication.[footnote]Id<\/em>. at para 12.[\/footnote]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In a 2016 resolution, the UN Human Rights Council (UNHRC<\/a>) affirmed[footnote]UNHRC, \u2018Resolution on the promotion, protection and enjoyment of human rights on the internet\u2019, A\/HRC\/32\/L.20 (2016) at para 1 (accessible at: https:\/\/digitallibrary.un.org\/record\/845728?ln=en<\/a>).[\/footnote]:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u201c[T]he same rights that people have offline must also be protected online, in particular freedom of expression, which is applicable regardless of frontiers and through any media of one\u2019s choice, in accordance with articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.\u201d<\/p><\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n

While freedom of expression is protected by a considerable body of treaty law, it can also be regarded as a principle of customary international law, as evidenced, inter alia<\/em>, by how frequently the principle is enunciated in treaties, other soft law instruments and constitutional guarantees.[footnote]Carver above at n 8 at p. 5.[\/footnote] Many human rights treaties, including those dedicated to the protection of the rights of specific groups \u2014 such as women, children and people with disabilities \u2014 also make explicit mention of freedom of expression.[footnote]Id.<\/em> at p 5.[\/footnote]<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\n
Freedom of expression in the digital age<\/strong><\/h5>\n\n\n\n

In recent years, freedom of expression has been under attack in a variety of new and challenging ways.  First, the rise of social media and new media platforms has in many countries decimated the revenue model for independent media, leaving many media houses financially strapped and unable to consistently play their crucial role of holding power to account.  Secondly, the rise of the internet has upended the traditional information eco-system in various ways.  This has resulted in a backlash from governments seeking to regulate growing cybercrimes and a flood of misinformation, often to the detriment of freedom of expression and legitimate dissent.[footnote]For more see Washington Post, \u2018There\u2019s a worrying rise in journalists being arrested for \u2018fake news\u2019 around the world\u2019 (2019)(accessible at: https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/world\/2019\/12\/12\/theres-worrying-rise-journalists-being-arrested-fake-news-around-world\/<\/a>) and Freedom House, \u2018The Rise of Digital Authoritarianism: Fake news, data collection and the challenge to democracy\u2019 (2018)(accessible at: https:\/\/freedomhouse.org\/article\/rise-digital-authoritarianism-fake-news-data-collection-and-challenge-democracy<\/a>).[\/footnote] Many states in South and Southeast Asia have been following this unfortunate trend of reacting to novel digital challenges through new laws and policies that are inconsistent with international standards.[footnote]Association for Progressive Communications, \u2018Unshackling expression: A study on laws criminalising expression online in Asia\u2019 (2017) at p. 25 (accessible at: https:\/\/www.giswatch.org\/sites\/default\/files\/giswspecial2017_web.pdf<\/a>). For a more recent overview of jurisprudence from South Asia, see Divya Srinivasan and Gayatri Khandhadai, Association for Progressive Communications, \u2018Jurisprudence Shaping Digital Rights in South Asia\u2019 (2020) (accessible at: https:\/\/www.apc.org\/sites\/default\/files\/Jurisprudence_Shaping_Digital_Rights_in_South_Asia_Dec_10_3.pdf<\/a>).[\/footnote]<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Freedom of expression under international law The rights guaranteed by article 19 of the ICCPR comprise three distinct but interrelated rights: the right to hold opinions without interference (freedom of opinion); the right to seek and receive information (access to information); and the right to impart information (freedom of expression). 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