{"id":309,"date":"2024-06-13T10:33:55","date_gmt":"2024-06-13T09:33:55","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.mediadefence.org\/ereader\/?post_type=publication&#038;p=309"},"modified":"2024-06-24T20:53:53","modified_gmt":"2024-06-24T19:53:53","slug":"the-right-to-freedom-of-expression-under-international-law","status":"publish","type":"publication","link":"https:\/\/www.mediadefence.org\/ereader\/publications\/introductory-modules-on-digital-rights-and-freedom-of-expression-online\/module-1-key-principles-of-international-law-and-freedom-of-expression\/the-right-to-freedom-of-expression-under-international-law\/","title":{"rendered":"The Right to Freedom of Expression Under International Law"},"content":{"rendered":"<h3 id=\"freedom-of-expression-under-international-law\" class=\"chapter-section\">Freedom of Expression Under International Law<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The United Nations was the first international entity to enshrine the right to freedom of expression in international law in 1948 with the UDHR. Article 19 states: \u201cEveryone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.\u201d[footnote]UN, \u2018Universal Declaration of Human Rights\u2019 (1948) (accessible at https:\/\/www.un.org\/en\/about-us\/universal-declaration-of-human-rights).[\/footnote] This was the foundation of what later became Article 19 of the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ohchr.org\/en\/professionalinterest\/pages\/ccpr.aspx%5d\">ICCPR<\/a>. The rights contained under Article 19 comprise three core tenets:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>the right to hold opinions without interference (freedom of opinion);<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>the right to seek and receive information (access to information); and<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>the right to impart information (freedom of expression).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The right was further elaborated on in General Comment No. 34 by the UNHRCtte.[footnote]See https:\/\/www2.ohchr.org\/english\/bodies\/hrc\/docs\/GC34.pdf.[\/footnote] General Comment No. 34 on the ICCPR notes that the right to freedom of expression includes for example:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>political discourse;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>commentary on one\u2019s own affairs and on public affairs;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>canvassing, discussion of human rights;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>journalism, cultural and artistic expression, teaching, and religious discourse.[footnote]OHCHR, General Comment No. 34 (2011) (accessible at https:\/\/www2.ohchr.org\/english\/bodies\/hrc\/docs\/GC34.pdf) at para 11.[\/footnote]<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">It also embraces expressions that may be regarded by some as deeply offensive.[footnote]<em>Id<\/em>. For further discussion on this, see Nani Jansen Reventlow, \u2018The right to \u2018offend, shock or disturb\u2019, or the importance of protecting unpleasant speech\u2019 in Perspectives on harmful speech online: A collection of essays, Berkman Klein Center for Internet &amp; Society (2016) (accessible at http:\/\/nrs.harvard.edu\/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:33746096) at pp 7-9.[\/footnote]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The right covers communications that are both verbal and non-verbal, and all modes of expression, including audio-visual, electronic and internet-based modes of communication.[footnote]See above n 4 at para 12.[\/footnote]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In terms of article 19(3) of the ICCPR, the right to freedom of expression contained in article 19(2) may be subject to certain restrictions:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\">\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The exercise of the rights provided for in paragraph 2 of this article carries with it special duties and responsibilities.&nbsp; It may therefore be subject to certain restrictions, but these shall only be such as are provided by law and are necessary: (a) For respect of the rights or reputations of others; (b) For the protection of national security or of public order (<em>ordre&nbsp;public<\/em>), or of public health or morals.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">With respect to a limitation on the right to freedom of expression under article 19(2) of the ICCPR, a three-part test is used to assess whether such a limitation is justified:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>the limitation must be provided for in law;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>it must pursue a legitimate aim; and<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>it must be necessary for a legitimate purpose.[footnote]For a fuller discussion on how freedom of expression may be legitimately limited, see the training manual published by Media Defence on the principles of freedom of expression under international law: Richard Carver, \u2018Training manual on international and comparative media and freedom of expression law\u2019 (2018) (accessible at https:\/\/www.mediadefence.org\/sites\/default\/files\/resources\/files\/MLDI.FoEManual.Version1.1.pdf) at pp 14-16. For more on proportionality see the 2002 decision of <em>Attorney-General v \u2018Mopa<\/em> in the Lesotho Court of Appeal (accessible at https:\/\/lesotholii.org\/ls\/judgment\/high-court\/2002\/3) and <em>Zimbabwe Lawyers for Human Rights &amp; Associated Newspapers of Zimbabwe v Zimbabwe<\/em> in the ACHPR (2009) (accessible at https:\/\/africanlii.org\/afu\/judgment\/african-commission-human-and-peoples-rights\/2009\/98).[\/footnote]<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This test applies similarly to limitations of the right to freedom of expression under other legal instruments, including the African Charter.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The ICCPR is not the only treaty within the United Nations framework to address the right to freedom of expression. For instance:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Article 15(3) of the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ohchr.org\/en\/professionalinterest\/pages\/cescr.aspx\">ICESCR<\/a> specifically refers to the freedom required for scientific research and creative activity, providing that: \u201cThe States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to respect the freedom indispensable for scientific research and creative activity.\u201d<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Articles 12 and 13 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.ohchr.org\/en\/professionalinterest\/pages\/crc.aspx\">CRC<\/a>) contain extensive protections relating to the right to freedom of expression enjoyed by children in articles 12 and 13.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Article 21 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.un.org\/development\/desa\/disabilities\/convention-on-the-rights-of-persons-with-disabilities.html\">CRPD<\/a>) contains extensive protections relating to freedom of expression and access to information about persons with disabilities in article 21.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">It is therefore clear that the right to freedom of expression is firmly entrenched within the United Nations system, both as an important right on its own, as well as a crucial enabling right. For example, as stated in General Comment No. 25, in the context of the right to participate in public affairs, voting rights and the right of equal access to public service, it was noted that:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\">\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u201cCitizens can also take part in the conduct of public affairs by exerting influence through public debate and dialogue with their representatives or through their capacity to organize themselves. This participation is supported by ensuring freedom of expression, assembly and association.\u201d[footnote]UNHRCtte General Comment No. 25 (1996) (accessible at https:\/\/www.equalrightstrust.org\/ertdocumentbank\/general comment 25.pdf).) at para 8.[\/footnote]<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n<h3 id=\"freedom-of-expression-online\" class=\"chapter-section\">Freedom of expression online<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Article 19(2) of the ICCPR stipulates that the right to freedom of expression applies regardless of frontiers and through any media of one\u2019s choice. General Comment No. 34 further explains that article 19(2) includes internet-based modes of communication.[footnote]See above n 4 at para 12.[\/footnote]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In a 2016 resolution, the UN Human Rights Council (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.ohchr.org\/en\/hrbodies\/hrc\/pages\/home.aspx\">UNHRC<\/a>) affirmed that:[footnote]UNHRC, \u2018Resolution on the promotion, protection and enjoyment of human rights on the internet\u2019 A\/HRC\/32\/L.20 (2016) (accessible at https:\/\/digitallibrary.un.org\/record\/845728?ln=en) at para 1.[\/footnote]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u201c[T]he same rights that people have offline must also be protected online, in particular freedom of expression, which is applicable regardless of frontiers and through any media of one\u2019s choice, in accordance with articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n<h3 id=\"african-regional-standards\" class=\"chapter-section\">African regional standards<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In 2016, the African Commission on Human and Peoples\u2019 Rights (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.achpr.org\/\">ACHPR<\/a>) affirmed the UNHRC\u2019s declaration and called on states to respect and take legislative and other measures to guarantee, respect, and protect citizens\u2019 rights to freedom of information and expression through access to internet services.[footnote]ACHPR, \u2018Resolution on the right to freedom of information and expression on the internet in Africa\u2019 ACHPR\/Res.362, (2016) (accessible at https:\/\/www.achpr.org\/sessions\/resolutions?id=374).[\/footnote] This was supplemented in 2019 by the Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information in Africa adopted by the ACHPR, which recognises the role of new digital technologies in the realisation of the rights to freedom of expression and access to information, and also affirms that the same rights that people have offline should be protected online in accordance with international human rights law and standards.[footnote]ACHPR, \u2018Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information in Africa\u2019 (2019) (accessible at https:\/\/www.achpr.org\/public\/Document\/file\/English\/Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression_ENG_2019.pdf). The Declaration replaces the Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression in Africa which the African Commission adopted in 2002 (accessible at https:\/\/www.achpr.org\/presspublic\/publication?id=3).).[\/footnote]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The 2019 Declaration differs from the 2002 Declaration in the following notable ways:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>It emphasises the importance of access to information by dedicating an entire section to the subject, whereas the 2002 Declaration mentioned it only in the Preamble.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It calls on States to \u201crecognise that universal, equitable, affordable and meaningful access to the internet is necessary for the realisation of freedom of expression [and] access to information.\u201d[footnote]ACHPR, \u2018Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information in Africa\u2019, Principle 37(2) (2019) (accessible at https:\/\/www.achpr.org\/legalinstruments\/detail?id=69).[\/footnote]<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It \u201carticulates State obligations with respect to internet intermediaries, noting that States must ensure that internet intermediaries provide access to the internet in a non\u2011discriminatory manner and that the use of algorithms or other artificial intelligence uses do not infringe on international human rights standards;\u201d[footnote]International Justice Resource Center, \u2018New ACHPR Declaration on Freedom of Expression &amp; Access to Information\u2019 (2020) (accessible at https:\/\/ijrcenter.org\/2020\/04\/22\/new-achpr-declaration-on-freedom-of-expression-access-to-information\/&#8221;).[\/footnote]<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>It provides guidance on requests to remove online content.[footnote]ACHPR above n 11 at Principle 39(4).[\/footnote]<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">It addresses the protection of personal information and communication surveillance and requires States to adopt laws regulating the processing of personal information.[footnote]<em>Id<\/em> at Principle 42.[\/footnote]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In 2023 the ACHPR, together with other international bodies, issued a Joint Declaration on Media Freedom of Democracy due to the concern about the impact of online platforms on media freedom and freedom of expression. This declaration provides recommendations to States to secure and facilitate the media\u2019s role as a vital institution and pillar of democracy, with particular attention to online media.[footnote]ACHPR, \u2018Joint Declaration on Media Freedom and Democracy\u2019 (2023) (accessible at https:\/\/achpr.au.int\/en\/news\/press-releases\/2023-05-04\/joint-declaration-media-freedom-and-democracy).[\/footnote]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">While freedom of expression is clearly protected by a considerable body of treaty law, it can also be regarded as a principle of customary international law, given how frequently the principle is enunciated in treaties, as well as other soft law instruments. Most human rights treaties, including those dedicated to the protection of the rights of specific groups \u2014 such as women, children, and people with disabilities \u2014 also make explicit mention of freedom of expression.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group\"><div class=\"wp-block-group__inner-container is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-group\"><div class=\"wp-block-group__inner-container is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-group highlight\"><div class=\"wp-block-group__inner-container is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\">\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center\"><strong>Freedom of expression in the digital age<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In recent years, freedom of expression has been under attack from a variety of new and challenging sources.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>First, the rise of social media and new media platforms has in many places decimated the revenue model for independent media, leaving many media houses weakened or bankrupt and unable to play their crucial role of holding power to account.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Second, the rise of the internet has upended the traditional information ecosystem. This has resulted in a backlash from governments seeking to regulate growing cybercrimes and a flood of misinformation, often to the detriment of freedom of expression and legitimate dissent.[footnote]For more see Washington Post, \u2018There\u2019s a worrying rise in journalists being arrested for \u2018fake news\u2019 around the world\u2019 (2019) (accessible at https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/world\/2019\/12\/12\/theres-worrying-rise-journalists-being-arrested-fake-news-around-world\/) and Freedom House, \u2018The Rise of Digital Authoritarianism: Fake news, data collection and the challenge to democracy\u2019 (2018) (accessible at https:\/\/freedomhouse.org\/article\/rise-digital-authoritarianism-fake-news-data-collection-and-challenge-democracy).[\/footnote]<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Ethiopia <\/strong>has recently passed a controversial social media law that was criticised for restricting online speech, and Nigeria is attempting to do the same with the so-called \u2018Social Media Bill.\u2019[footnote]Al Jazeera \u2018Nigerians raise alarm over controversial Social Media Bill\u2019 (2019) (accessible at https:\/\/www.aljazeera.com\/news\/2019\/12\/18\/nigerians-raise-alarm-over-controversial-social-media-bill) and Al Jazeera, \u2018Ethiopia passes controversial law curbing &#8216;hate speech&#8217; (2020) (accessible at https:\/\/www.aljazeera.com\/news\/2020\/02\/ethiopia-passes-controversial-law-curbing-hate-speech-200213132808083.html).[\/footnote] In 2022, <strong>South Africa\u2019s<\/strong> Film and Publications Regulations came into force.[footnote]Business Tech \u2018New internet censorship regulations for South Africa\u2019 (2022) (accessible at https:\/\/businesstech.co.za\/news\/government\/622355\/new-internet-censorship-regulations-for-south-africa\/).[\/footnote] These Regulations have been heavily criticised as they essentially give an authority power to censor digitally distributed content. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Other trends such as the rise of disinformation and States\u2019 responses thereto, pose serious and increasing threats to freedom of expression online. Similarly, the increase in the use of sophisticated surveillance technology on mobile phones has given rise to restrictions on freedom of expression, particularly among journalists.[footnote]Forbidden Stories \u2018Journalists under surveillance\u2019 (2021) (accessible at https:\/\/forbiddenstories.org\/pegasus-journalists-under-surveillance\/&#8221;).[\/footnote]<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>The United Nations was the first international entity to enshrine the right to freedom of expression in international law in 1948 with the UDHR. 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