{"id":1652,"date":"2024-06-12T11:03:43","date_gmt":"2024-06-12T10:03:43","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.mediadefence.org\/ereader\/publications\/online-violence-against-journalists\/module-2-digital-attacks-and-online-gbv\/disinformation-misinformation-copy\/"},"modified":"2024-06-17T08:45:30","modified_gmt":"2024-06-17T07:45:30","slug":"privacy-data-protection","status":"publish","type":"publication","link":"https:\/\/www.mediadefence.org\/ereader\/publications\/online-violence-against-journalists\/module-2-digital-attacks-and-online-gbv\/privacy-data-protection\/","title":{"rendered":"Privacy and Data Protection Violations"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Overview<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Different forms<\/strong>: ICT-related violations of privacy exist in a wide range of different forms that are rapidly changing and evolving as new technologies develop and become widespread, and as both users of these tools and perpetrators find innovative new tools and loopholes to target the growing volume of personal information available online. Some examples include:\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Cyberstalking<\/strong>, which includes repeated, intrusive, and persistent behaviour over digital channels such as messaging or calls or placing a subject under surveillance aimed at harassing or creating fear in the subject.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Sextortion<\/strong>, in which a perpetrator blackmails a victim into either creating sexually explicit material like images or videos engaging in unwanted sexual acts for payment or using threats against the victim or their loved ones.[footnote]UNSR on VAW Report on online violence above n 5.[\/footnote] It therefore includes other forms of violence such as hacking accounts, intercepting communications and NCII.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Doxxing<\/strong>, or the publication of personal data of an individual without their consent and with the intent to embarrass, humiliate or expose a victim to harassment.[footnote]Amnesty International, \u2018What is online violence and abuse against women?\u2019, 20 November 2017 (accessible at https:\/\/www.amnesty.org\/en\/latest\/campaigns\/2017\/11\/what-is-online-violence-and-abuse-against-women\/).[\/footnote]<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Hacking<\/strong>, which includes the unauthorised access of a person\u2019s device, network, or account for nefarious purposes, for example obtaining personal data.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Impersonation<\/strong>, creating a fake account using the person\u2019s name, image, or both in order to post false, misleading, inciteful, maligning or inflammatory content.[footnote]Pen America above n 21.[\/footnote]<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Targets<\/strong>: Privacy violations such as the examples above are frequently used as tactics to target and attack women journalists, frequently in combination with other digital attacks. It is clear that there is significant overlap between privacy violations and other forms of digital attacks, especially the various forms of cyber-harassment which often involve a component of intruding into one\u2019s personal space or collecting personal information without consent.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group highlight\"><div class=\"wp-block-group__inner-container is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\">\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center\">Cyberstalking: How can journalists be targeted?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Cyberstalking can manifest itself in many forms. A few examples of ways in which journalists can be targeted include:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li> The use of emails or messages to send sexist, suggestive, or threatening content to the victim;\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 <\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The repetitive and excessive tagging of the victim on their own or unrelated posts; \u00b7\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Unwavering participation in the target\u2019s online activities, through liking, commenting, retweeting, or sharing their online content;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The creation of fake posts, e.g., with sexually explicit videos or photos of themselves, to embarrass and shame the victim. \u00a0 <\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The hacking into or hijacking of the target\u2019s online accounts, laptop, or smartphone camera to track or record the victim\u2019s movements and activity.[footnote]Sheri Gordon, \u2018What Is Cyberstalking?\u2019, 16 August 2021 (accessible at https:\/\/www.verywellmind.com\/what-is-cyberstalking-5181466)[\/footnote] \u00a0<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group highlight\"><div class=\"wp-block-group__inner-container is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\">\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center\">Spyware: The threat of Pegasus and Predator<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In recent years, Spyware has emerged as a significant concern, enabling covert access to information on target computer systems or devices. Predator and Pegasus are <a href=\"https:\/\/www2.deloitte.com\/gr\/en\/pages\/finance\/articles\/unauthorized-surveillance-and-breaches-with-predator---pegasus.html\">prominent spyware programs<\/a> capable of clandestinely infiltrating mobile phones and other devices running Android and iOS, exploiting the latest mobile operating systems. Journalists, politicians, government officials, chief executives, and directors are often targeted. \u00a0 <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Notable Incidents:<\/strong> <\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>In 2019, Amnesty International <a href=\"https:\/\/securitylab.amnesty.org\/latest\/2019\/10\/morocco-human-rights-defenders-targeted-with-nso-groups-spyware\/\">documented<\/a> network injection attacks in Morocco, infecting human rights defenders and journalists with NSO Group\u2019s Pegasus spyware. <\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In 2021, Egyptian exiled politician Ayman Nour and an anonymous news program host were <a href=\"https:\/\/citizenlab.ca\/2021\/12\/pegasus-vs-predator-dissidents-doubly-infected-iphone-reveals-cytrox-mercenary-spyware\/\">hacked<\/a> with Predator spyware developed by Cytrox. <\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>In 2023, the <a href=\"https:\/\/securitylab.amnesty.org\/latest\/2023\/10\/global-predator-files-investigation-reveals-catastrophic-failure-to-regulate-surveillance-trade\/\">Predator Files<\/a> global investigation revealed the widespread use of surveillance technologies and government failures in regulation. <\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The Citizen Lab <a href=\"https:\/\/citizenlab.ca\/2023\/09\/predator-in-the-wires-ahmed-eltantawy-targeted-with-predator-spyware-after-announcing-presidential-ambitions\/\">reported<\/a> a similar system targeting a political opposition figure in Egypt with Intellexa\u2019s Predator spyware in September 2023. <\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>As of 2024, 11 nations, including Angola, Armenia, Botswana, Egypt, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Oman, the Philippines, Saudi Arabia, and Trinidad and Tobago, are <a href=\"https:\/\/www.darkreading.com\/remote-workforce\/predator-mobile-spyware-alive-and-well-and-expanding\">suspected<\/a> Predator customers. \u00a0 <\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Protective measures:<\/strong> \u00a0 <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Amnesty International has developed some <a href=\"https:\/\/securitylab.amnesty.org\/latest\/2023\/10\/technical-deep-dive-into-intellexa-alliance-surveillance-products\/\">practical guidance<\/a> for individuals who may be at risk of these digital attacks: <\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Keep your web browser and mobile operating system software updated to mitigate security vulnerabilities.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Enable the enhanced security \u201cLockdown Mode\u201d on Apple devices to increase resistance against compromise.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Use a reputable VPN provider to enhance privacy and prevent surveillance from ISPs or governments. <\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Utilise features like Signal\u2019s \u201cRelay Call\u201d mode to obscure metadata and reduce exposure to network attacks.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Employ disappearing messages and regular device restarts to minimize exposure to spyware infections.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Seek expert assistance if you receive warnings of state-sponsored attacks to assess ongoing risks for your accounts or devices.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">If you are concerned about an attack or have been attacked, reach out to Amnesty\u2019s Security Lab at <a href=\"https:\/\/securitylab.amnesty.org\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">securitylab.amnesty.org<\/a> for assistance.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>International law and standards<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The <strong>rights to privacy<\/strong> and <strong>gender equality<\/strong> are interlinked, with digital security attacks targeting women journalists being incidences of <strong>gender-based violence<\/strong> and <strong>discrimination.<\/strong>[footnote]UNHRC \u2018Report of the Special Rapporteur on the right to privacy\u2019, (2020) at para 19(e) (accessible at https:\/\/documents-dds-ny.un.org\/doc\/UNDOC\/GEN\/G20\/071\/66\/PDF\/G2007166.pdf?OpenElement).[\/footnote] International law also protects against both <strong>unlawful and arbitrary interference<\/strong> and interceptions of telephonic, telegraphic, and other forms of communication, such as the interception of personal communication are prohibited.[footnote]UNHRC, \u2018CCPR General Comment No. 16: Article 17 (Right to Privacy), The Right to Respect of Privacy, Family, Home and Correspondence, and Protection of Honour and Reputation\u2019 (accessible at https:\/\/www.refworld.org\/docid\/453883f922.html).[\/footnote]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Doxxing is an example of a privacy violation that also has various rights:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Privacy<\/strong>: Frequently used to abuse, intimidate, and silence, women journalists. In instances in which a perpetrator retrieves and discloses personal information and data to the public with \u201cmalicious intent,\u201d is a \u201cclear violation of the right to privacy.\u201d[footnote]UNSR on VAW Report on online violence above n 5.[\/footnote] Privacy is protected by Article 17 of the ICCPR and is found in regional instruments such as the Malabo Convention[footnote]Media Defence, \u2018Module 4: Data Privacy and Data Protection\u2019, (2020) (accessible at https:\/\/www.mediadefence.org\/ereader\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2020\/12\/Module-4-Data-privacy-and-data-protection.pdf).[\/footnote] which, under Chapter II, protects personal data and calls on States Parties to \u201cpunish any violation of privacy.\u201d[footnote]Id.[\/footnote]<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Freedom of expression<\/strong>: PEN America notes that doxxing, through the use of \u201charassment, intimidation, extortion, stalking or identity theft,\u201d[footnote]Pen America above n 21.[\/footnote] is used to silence and shame journalists and malign their reputation and character, leading to its identification as a \u201cglobal threat to journalists.\u201d[footnote]Kathrine Huntington, \u2018Journalism in the Age of Doxxing\u2019, 2020 (accessible at https:\/\/cedar.wwu.edu\/cgi\/viewcontent.cgi?article=1632&amp;context=scholwk).[\/footnote]<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Media freedom<\/strong>: Further, doxxing can be used as a tactic by perpetrators to lift the veil of digital anonymity for journalists working in critical environments or using pseudonyms to protect their online identity, which is central to media freedom. Concerningly, doxxing also increases the threat for \u201cat-risk confidential sources\u201d[footnote]UNESCO \u2018The Chilling\u2019 above n 6.[\/footnote] and can place the families of journalists in a vulnerable situation, making them inadvertent targets as well.[footnote]Pen America \u2018Protecting from Doxing\u2019 (accessible at https:\/\/onlineharassmentfieldmanual.pen.org\/protecting-information-from-doxing\/).[\/footnote]<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Data protection: <\/strong>Under international law, illegally obtaining and releasing journalists\u2019 private information, or confidential information that is not in the public domain, amounts to an infringement of their right to privacy, including the right to informational privacy (also known as data protection).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><strong>National laws<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Several countries within the SSA region have passed data protection legislation in recent years that seeks to provide redress for victims of privacy violations in the online and offline realms, in addition to the more generalised anti-harassment laws discussed above.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group highlight\"><div class=\"wp-block-group__inner-container is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\">\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center\"><strong>The state of privacy and data protection in Africa<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/dataprotection.africa\/\">Dataprotection.africa<\/a> is an online platform that maps the state of data protection legislation in all 55 AU-recognised countries. It highlights that 36 countries currently have laws in place, while a further three and considering draft bills. \u00a0 <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Most recently, <strong>Nigeria<\/strong> signed the Data Protection Act into law in 2023[footnote]DPA, \u2018Nigeria: President Bola Tinubu signs the Nigeria Data Protection Act 2023 into law,\u2019 (2023) (accessible at https:\/\/dataprotection.africa\/nigeria-president-bola-tinubu-signs-the-nigeria-data-protection-act-2023-into-law\/).[\/footnote] and <strong>Tanzania\u2019s<\/strong> Personal Data Protection Act came into effect in May 2023.[footnote]DPA, \u2018Tanzania: Personal Data Protection Act comes into effect,\u2019 (2023) (accessible at https:\/\/dataprotection.africa\/tanzania-personal-data-protection-act-comes-into-effect\/).[\/footnote] \u00a0 <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Some countries also have relevant provisions in their Cybercrimes legislation. For example, section 17 of <strong>Kenya\u2019s<\/strong> <a href=\"https:\/\/nc4.go.ke\/the-computer-misuse-and-cybercrimes-act\/\">Computer Misuse and Cybercrimes Act<\/a>, 2018 criminalises the \u201cunauthorised interception\u201d of data to or from a computer system over a telecommunication system.[footnote]The Computer Misuse and Cybercrimes Act, No. 5 of 2018 (accessible at http:\/\/kenyalaw.org:8181\/exist\/kenyalex\/actview.xql?actid=No. 5 of 2018).[\/footnote] \u00a0<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Concerningly, many SSA countries do not have holistic legal frameworks to combat and prevent doxxing and cyberstalking. As such, \u201cdepending on the jurisdiction in which it took place\u2026 [they] may be prosecuted under the legal provisions relating to violation of privacy or harassment.\u201d[footnote]Safety of Journalists \u2018Practical and legal tools to protect the safety of journalists\u2019 (accessible at https:\/\/safetyofjournalists.trust.org\/).[\/footnote]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Affected journalists can seek redress via <strong>civil and criminal law<\/strong>, especially where the perpetrators can be clearly identified and where personal information not in the public domain was illegally obtained.[footnote]For more case law regarding doxing and cyberstalking affecting journalists in jurisdictions including Australia, Finland, France, Singapore, amongst others, see: The Law Library of Congress, \u2018Laws protecting journalists from online harassment\u2019 (2019) (accessible at https:\/\/www.loc.gov\/item\/2019713411\/). For other online harassment cases, see: Pen America, \u2018Online Harassment Case Studies\u2019 (accessible at https:\/\/onlineharassmentfieldmanual.pen.org\/online-harassment-case-studies\/).[\/footnote] As discussed in the case below, doxxing cases can also be raised in the context of the <strong>right to freedom of the press<\/strong> and the importance of the role of the mass media in a democratic society.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group highlight\"><div class=\"wp-block-group__inner-container is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\">\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center\"><strong><strong>Case note: Litigating \u2018Doxxing\u2019 against Journalists<\/strong><\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The South African case of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.saflii.org\/za\/cases\/ZAGPJHC\/2019\/166.html\"><em>Brown v Economic Freedom Fighters<\/em><\/a>, related to journalist Karima Brown, who was subjected to an extended and severe doxxing attack following the public and unauthorised disclosure of Brown\u2019s personal cellular telephone number on Twitter by a prominent political leader, Julius Malema of the Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF). This was ostensibly as punishment for her erroneously sending a message to the political party\u2019s WhatsApp group. \u00a0 <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">As a result, Brown began to receive threatening and \u201cgraphic messages on social media as well as her phone through voice and WhatsApp messages, many threatening rape and murder\u201d and many with deeply charged racial connotations. Colleagues who came to her defence online were likewise subjected to a torrent of online abuse and harassment.[footnote]CPJ, \u2018South African journalist doxxed by Economic Freedom Fighters leader, threatened\u2019, (2019) (accessible at https:\/\/cpj.org\/2019\/03\/south-african-journalist-doxxed-by-economic-freedo\/).[\/footnote] \u00a0 <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Brown lodged an application before the High Court of South Africa in 2019 founded on the obligations of political parties and their leaders under the Electoral Code of Conduct. The High Court observed that the threats fell \u201cwell within the ambit of being harassing, intimidatory, hazardous and threatening\u201d and that Mr Malema and the EFF had failed to properly discharge their obligations under the Electoral Act by failing to issue specific instructions to EFF supporters to stop intimidating or threatening Brown.[footnote]High Court of South Africa, Gauteng Division, Case No. 14686\/2019 (accessible at http:\/\/www.saflii.org\/za\/cases\/ZAGPJHC\/2019\/166.html).[\/footnote] \u00a0<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Overview Cyberstalking: How can journalists be targeted? Cyberstalking can manifest itself in many forms. A few examples of ways in which journalists can be targeted include: The hacking into or hijacking of the target\u2019s online accounts, laptop, or smartphone camera to track or record the victim\u2019s movements and activity.[footnote]Sheri Gordon, \u2018What Is Cyberstalking?\u2019, 16 August [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":6,"featured_media":0,"parent":1645,"menu_order":354,"template":"page-templates\/chapter.php","publication-category":[],"class_list":["post-1652","publication","type-publication","status-publish","hentry"],"acf":[],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v27.9 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Privacy and Data Protection Violations | eReader<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"This module provides a high-level overview of online violence against journalists, with a focus on the gendered impact on women journalists.\" \/>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, 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